TEHRAN- Wars and armed conflicts don’t only have human casualties; the environment is one of their biggest victims. Historical experiences, from the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo conflicts, the war in Lebanon, the genocide against Gaza, to the U.S.-Israeli coalition’s actions against Iran, have shown that destruction of infrastructure, explosions, fires, and pollutants from military operations have severe and long-term effects on soil, water, air, and wildlife. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has repeatedly highlighted the issue.

Recent U.S. and Israeli attacks on Iran, particularly targeting oil depots and industrial facilities, are a stark and alarming example. According to The Guardian, these attacks have caused “black rain” in Tehran, a mix of pollutants, smoke, and petroleum compounds in the airposing serious threats to both human health and the environment. These events illustrate that even countries committed to environmental protection under international protocols are vulnerable to unpredictable military attacks.

This report highlights the international mechanisms in place to protect the environment during war, examines the violations seen in recent attacks, and explores their environmental and climate consequences.

International legal mechanisms for environmental protection

One of the earliest international frameworks is the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD), adopted in 1976. This convention bans the use of environmental modification techniques as a tool of warfare and prohibits any action that could cause “widespread, long-lasting, or severe damage to the natural environment,” emphasizing state responsibility.

Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions, an amendment to the original conventions, includes Articles 35 and 55, which obligate countries to protect the environment during armed conflicts. Additionally, the First and Second Additional Protocols of the 1977 Geneva Conventions emphasize environmental protection and civilian safety during war. 

Article 55 of the First Protocol specifically prohibits actions that could lead to “widespread, long-term, and severe damage to the natural environment.” These protocols provide an initial legal framework for assessing environmental damage in wartime, though enforcement has always been challenging.

Moreover, international humanitarian law and human rights law recognize the protection of a healthy environment as a human necessity. International organizations have repeatedly stressed that environmental protection should hold the same political importance as human rights, since a healthy environment underpins peace and the fulfillment of human rights. 

This perspective frames environmental protection not merely as a technical issue but as a legal and humanitarian obligation during conflict.

Violations by U.S. and Israel

Recent U.S. and Israeli attacks on Iran targeted oil depots and critical infrastructure, causing serious environmental and human consequences. These actions not only violate international humanitarian law but, by striking civilian infrastructure, constitute clear examples of environmental crimes (ecocide). 

They violate both the Geneva Protocols and the ENMOD Convention. Long-term consequences include air pollution, acid rain, public health threats, and regional crises affecting water and electricity supplies.

These attacks have contaminated air, soil, and water, caused black rain, and harmed wildlife. Doug Weir, director of the Conflict and Environment Observatory, noted that satellite imagery and open-source data indicate over 300 problematic environmental events in Iran, and limited data access due to internet restrictions means many damages remain undocumented.

An initial research analysis by Queen Mary University of London, in collaboration with the Climate and Community Institute London and Lancaster University, found that in just the first 14 days of the war, approximately 5–5.6 million tons of CO2 equivalent were released into the atmosphere, roughly equal to Iceland’s total annual emissions or the output of 1.1 million gasoline cars.

Breakdowns of emissions include:

* 2.4 million tons from building and infrastructure destruction 

* 1.88 million tons from fires and explosions in oil storage and petroleum products 

* 529,000 tons from fuel used in military operations 

* 172,000 tons from the destruction and replacement of military equipment 

* 55,000 tons from missiles and drones 

This shows that the environmental impact of war extends far beyond fuel use by military vehicles.

- Air and soil pollution: Black rain in Tehran from oil depot explosions and particulate matter illustrates the short-term, direct effects. Soil contaminated with petroleum compounds and heavy metals threatens both surface and groundwater, while pollution in the Persian Gulf has long-term impacts on marine ecosystems, including coral reefs and mangroves.

-  Wildlife: Rare and endangered species in Iran face habitat destruction, altered feeding patterns, and stress from explosions. Forced displacement of animals, changes in migration routes, population declines, threats to species survival, and disruptions in reproductive cycles are examples of these effects.

Role of the UN and UNEP

The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) has worked to strengthen environmental protection before, during, and after armed conflicts. However, in practice, environmental protection during war often does not receive the same political weight as human rights. UNEP assessments show that a healthy environment is fundamental to peace and human rights, and should be considered alongside civilian protection.

Despite international conventions and protocols, countries often justify attacks on strategic or military targets. Recent events in Iran demonstrate that even sensitive infrastructurelike water treatment facilities, power plants, and industrial centerscan be targeted, creating serious risks for human health and the environment.

Modern warfare, especially attacks on civilian infrastructure, carries extensive environmental and human consequences. While international laws exist to protect the environment, enforcement is rare, and countries often cause widespread damage under the pretext of military objectives. 

Recent attacks in Iran, and the black rain in Tehran, illustrate that weak enforcement has immediate and indirect effects on human health and wildlife. Environmental protection must be prioritized alongside human rights and civilian safety in international policy to prevent future ecocide.